Cognitive Load & Information Processing Theory

Cone of Experience - Edgar Dale

Cone of Experience

Edgar Dale introduced this method of categorizing media's ability to communicate information in 1946. It basically states that learners must have sufficient real-life, concrete experiences to build upon for them to grasp more complex, less realistic and abstract concepts as they mature. For example, if children were to look at pictures of flowers and know what they were, they must have first seen, smelled and touched real flowers. 

Source: Wikipedia

In terms of distance education, it is possible to bring the sight and sound of an object, but it is not possible to bring the smell. It is important for new information to be presented as realistically as possible. (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 81) This does not mean that "realistic" is better. In fact, realistic instruction has the potential to introduce "noise" that actually detracts the learner from possibly grasping a skill. It is important for instructional designer to consider the advantages and disadvantages of offering realistic instruction vs more abstract instruction. Failing to identify the best approach can be costly and jeopardize the overall goal of grasping a skill or concept. Sometimes the best approach is somewhere in the middle of the spectrum between concrete and abstract.

Source: Simonson, M. R., Smaldino, S. E., & Zvacek, S. (2015). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (6th ed.).

Distance Education Theories

Distance Education Theories

Distance education is defined to have four components:

• institution-based (not self-study)
• separation, either geographically or by time, between the instructor and students
• learning unit is connected by telecommunications
• consists of a learning group or community that shares ideas

Simonson's Emerging Theory of Distance Education
Distance education is equivalent to traditional education. While not identical, learning outcomes are equivalent if distance education courses are properly designed. The basis for Simonson’s equivalency theory is that learning experiences should be equivalent, rather than identical regardless of whether the learner is in a traditional or distant setting. For example, a triangle and square may be equivalent in area, but they are different shapes.

  
The field of distance education is still emerging and this is evident in the numerous theories that have been presented in this area. Keegan classified theories of distance education into three groups: 

• Theories of independence and autonomy
• Theories of industrialization of teaching
• Theories of interaction and communication

Theories of Independence and Autonomy

American Theory of Independent Study

Wedemeyer, a professor from the University of Wisconsin, considered the independence of the student as the essence of distance education (Keegan 1986). This was reflected in Wedemeyer's preference for the term "independent study" for distance education at the college or university level. He was critical of contemporary patterns of higher education, believing that outdated concepts of learning and teaching were being employed. Wedemeyer felt that these concepts failed to utilize modern technologies in ways that could alter an institution. He set forth a system of distance education that includes ten characteristics which emphasize learner independence and the adoption of technology as a way of implementing it. According to Wedemeyer, the system should:

1. Be capable of operating any place where there are students---even only one student------whether or not there are teachers at the same place, at the same time;
2. Place greater responsibility for learning on the student;
3. Free faculty members from custodial-type duties so that more time can be given to truly educational tasks;
4. Offer students and adults wider choices (more opportunities) in courses, formats, and methodologies;
5. Use, as appropriate, all the teaching media and methods proven effective;
6. Mix and combine media and methods so that each subject or unit within a subject is taught in the best way known;
7. Cause the redesign and development of courses to fit into an articulated media program;
8. Preserve and enhance opportunities for adaptation to individual differences;
9. Evaluate student achievement simply, not by raising barriers regarding the place, rate, method, or sequence of student study; and
10. Permit students to start, stop, and learn at their own pace.

Theories of Industrialization of Teaching

After examining a research base that included an extensive analysis of the European distance teaching organizations of the 1960s, Peters (1988) proposed that distance education could be analyzed by comparison with the industrial production of goods. Peters stated that from many points of view, conventional, oral, group-based education was a pre-industrial form of education, implying that distance teaching could not have existed before the industrial era. Based on economic and industrial theory, Peters proposed the following new categories (terminology) for the analysis of distance education:

1. Rationalization: the use of methodical measures to reduce the required amount of input of power, time, and money.
2. Division of labor: the division of a task into simpler components or subtasks.
3. Mechanization: the use of machines in a work process. Peters noted that distance education would be impossible without machines.
4. Assembly line: a method of work in which workers remain station ary while objects they are working on move past them. In traditional distance education programs, materials for both teacher and student are not the product of one individual.
5. Mass production: the production of goods in large quantities. Because demand outstrips supply at colleges and universities, there has been a trend toward large-scale operations.
6. Preparatory work: determining how workers, machines, and materials can usefully relate to each other during each phase of the production process. The success of distance education depends on a preparatory phase.
7. Planning: the system of decisions that determines an operation prior to its being carried out.
8. Organization: creating general or permanent arrangements for purpose-oriented activity. Organization makes it possible for students to receive predetermined instructional units at appointed times.
9. Scientific control methods: methods by which work processes are analyzed systematically, particularly by time studies, and in accordance with the results obtained from measurements and empirical data.
10. Formalization: the predetermination of the phases of the manufacturing process. In distance education, all the points in the cycle must be determined exactly.
11. Standardization: the limitations of manufacture to a restricted number of types of one product to make these more suitable for their purpose, cheaper to produce, and easier to replace.
12. Change of function: the change of the role or job of the worker in the production process. The original role of knowledge provider as lecturer is divided into those of study unit author and marker.
13. Objectification: the loss, in the production process, of the subjective element that had previously determined work to a considerable degree. In distance education most teaching functions are objectified.
14. Concentration and centralization: because of the large amount of capital required for mass production and the division of labor, there has been a movement toward large industrial concerns with a concentration of capital, a centralized administration, and a market that is monopolized.

Theories of Interaction and Communication

Holmberg’s theory of interaction and communication states that the effectiveness of distance education directly relates to the emotional connectedness the learner has to the instructor and learning unit. This consequently increases student pleasure and motivation. While Holmberg admits this is a “leaky theory,” I agree with it because I have personally experienced it. When students’ emotional needs are met through effective interaction with the instructor, other students and rapport is built, students feel safer to take risks which increases the likelihood of experiential learning instances.

YEAR	RESEARCHER	THEORY	SHORT EXPLANATION
1960s	Otto Peters (Germany)	Theory of Industrialization of Teaching	Distance education can be analyzed by comparing it with industrial production of goods. Proposed a bunch of new terms to use when analyzing distance ed that all relate to industrialization.Basically, we can apply industrial thinking to distance ed, like division of labor as important or that the effectiveness of learning depends of planning and organizing.
1970s	Michael Moore	Theory of Independent Study/Transactional distance	Distance ed = “independent study”His theory is a classification method for distance education programs by examining the amount of learner autonomy and the distance between teacher and learner. Distance ed is about dialog (communication) and structure (how does program respond to needs of learner?).
1985	Börje Holmberg	Theory of Interaction and Communication	Distance ed = “Guided Didactic Conversation”Basically, if learners feel a part of a learning community/dialogue and emotionally involved they are more motivated to learn
1990?	Malcolm Knowles	Andragogy(which means the method and practice of teaching adult learners)	the attainment of adulthood is connected to how adults perceive themselves as self- directing individualsA theory all about what adults need to be successful in distance ed like mutual respect, safe spaces, minimal criticism, lots of support, specific guidelines.. (seems like what all learners need….)
1996	Desmond Keegan	Actually framework for creating theories of distance ed	Answer three ?’s before developing a theory of distance ed:1. Is dist ed an educational activity?2. Is dist ed a form a conventional ed?3. Is dist ed possible?Teaching acts time/place separate from learning act time/place: to be successful, two acts must be reintegratedsuggests 5 changes to normal structure to do so (industrialization, privatization, administrative, building, cost), and three hypotheses from his framework:1. dis ted students drop out of programs that don’t do the above2. dis ted students don’t achieve good learning when the above does not happen3. status of dist ed will be questioned when above are not met
??	Hilary Perraton	(Synthesizing existing theories)	14 hypotheses/statements from existing theories of ed and communicationFirst 5 about how distance ed can maximize learning (cheaper, more accessible, can teach anything)4 about needing to increase dialog (dialog helps facilitate)5 about method (multimedia more effective than single, systems approach helpful, feedback necessary, do more than read/watch/listen, ENGAGE)
2015	Simonson	Theory of Equivalency	The experiences of the local learner and the distant learner should have equivalent value even though these experiences might be quite different

Sources: http://www.c3l.uni-oldenburg.de/cde/found/simons99.html

Simonson, M. R., Smaldino, S. E., & Zvacek, S. (2015). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (6th ed.).
M Acosta (classmate in EDIT 5370; Summer 2018)

Levels of Evaluation

The Kirkpatrick model of evaluation is a 4-tier model for evaluating effectiveness of an instructional design program. Its creator, Donald L. Kirkpatrick, PhD, introduced the model in the 1950s. While some are skeptical of its effectiveness, it still remains the most widely used model in the world due to its simplicity.

http://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/Our-Philosophy/The-Kirkpatrick-Model

Level 1 - Reaction

This level measures customer satisfaction, engagement, and relevance. While a positive reaction doesn't ensure that learning occurred, often, a negative reaction almost always reduces the possibility that it did. In other words, how learners react to training is an important part of whether or not they are able to learn.

Types of questions one might ask to measure effectiveness of this level:

• How did participants react to the training program?
• Did it engage them?
• Did they feel the training applied to their jobs?
• Were the materials relevant?

Level 2 - Learning

This level measures learning. Specifically, it measures how well students have evolved in skills, knowledge, or attitude. Pre and post tests help evaluate learning at this level, but they are not always seen as useful in a work-type setting. Various other summative evaluations may be used. While a positive reaction doesn't ensure that learning occurred, often, a negative reaction almost always reduces the possibility that it did. In other words, how learners react to training is an important part of whether or not they are able to learn. Levels 1 and 2 are the most often evaluated levels. Many organizations do not ever reach level 3 of evaluation. If level 3 is evaluated, it is imperative that proper analysis of levels 1 and 2 have first occurred.

Level 3 - Behavior

This level measures the transfer that has occurred in a learner's behavior due to the training program. For many, this measures the true effectiveness of a learning program. Some argue that this level is difficult to assess due to a variety of factors beyond the instructional designers role. However, the purpose of learning is to impact on-the-job performance, so analysis of this level is important in knowing what changes need to be made to the instructional program in order to facilitate maximum return on investment (ROI). Some factors which impact level 3 results include managerial support of the client, organization processes which may affect a client's ability to transfer learning, and lack of follow-up by training organization after the training has concluded.

Types of questions/actions one might ask to measure effectiveness of this level:

• Are the new skills, knowledge, or attitudes being used in the learner's everyday environment?
• Are you (or the trainee) using what you (they) learned? Why or why not?
• If you needed to _____ (insert taught skill based off learning objective), how would do this?
• If you aren't ______ (using new skill based off learning objective), what would you need to begin doing so?
• At the conclusion of training, have students write a letter/(or, if virtual, an email) to themselves reflecting on what they learned and how they will apply the learning in the field. Mail the letter/follow up on the email to them months after training and contact them to get input on how they think they are doing applying the skills they set out to apply. The idea is that improving a learner's self-efficacy (belief that they can apply the learned skills), will in fact, increase the likelihood that the learner will apply the newly learned skills. This exercise allows for the learner to authentically evaluate self-efficacy at the end of training while also providing a means to follow up on that evaluation.

Level 4 - Results

This level measures the impact of training. This may include increased productivity, reduced cost, increased sales, higher profits, etc.

Types of questions/actions one might ask to measure effectiveness of this level:

• Have support calls on training topics reduced?
• Is there increased customer satisfaction?
• Is waste reduced?
• Has morale improved?

Sources:

http://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/Our-Philosophy/The-Kirkpatrick-Model
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/kirkpatrick.htm
https://maketrainingstick.wordpress.com/
https://maketrainingstick.wordpress.com/2014/06/30/letter-to-self-easy-closing-activity-that-makes-training-stick/
http://maketrainingstick.com/pdfs/written-self-guidance.pdf

Bates, R. A. (2004). A critical analysis of evaluation practice: the Kirkpatrick model and the principle of beneficence. Evaluation and Program Planning, 27(3), 341-347. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2004.04.011

Curriculum Developer vs. Instructional Designer - What's the Difference?

Potato, potawto, tomato, tamatoh...right? 

Curriculum development and instructional design - those are the same things, right? Well, not necessarily. In my quest to clarify some terms in this relatively young field of Instructional Technology, I have found myself thinking a lot about the differences in these two terms. What am I?

I work as a Curriculum Developer for a large software company. Like most people, I have a job description that outlines my duties. And probably like most people, I would say that I do so much more than what is technically listed in that outline. So, I got to thinking...am I a Curriculum Developer, Instructional Designer, Trainer? WHAT AM I?!? Are these even the same things? So, off to research (Ok, ok, surf the internet) I went!

Here's what I discovered.

Curriculum Developers are professional experts in all things learning. They know a lot about learning theory, learning methods, educational best practices as well as the wide spectrum of learning content delivery media (classroom-based, online, synchronous, asynchronous, webinars, e-learning etc.) Curriculum Developers are adept at looking at the big picture, or blueprint, of an organization's learning needs and then mapping out the best path to achieving those needs. 

The ability to identify which content is necessary in reaching an organization's goal is key. The Curriculum Developer's knowledge of learning theories supports their ability to properly sequence relevant foundational concepts  and essential building blocks which are necessary for mastery of the identified content. Some Curriculum Developers also serve as subject matter experts (SMEs) and have some overlapping expertise in Instructional Design.

Instructional Designers are professional experts in the development of actual courses (pieces of the big picture). The development of courses includes content flow, typically designed using a preferred instructional design model, and specific learning activities that will be used to most efficiently achieve the learning goals of the organization If the organization has a Curriculum Developer, this is typically the content outlined in the Curriculum Developer's blueprint. When developing the actual courses, Instructional Designers are experts in understanding which instructional design model best meets the needs of their organization. Common instructional design models include: ADDIE, The Dick and Carey Model, ASSURE, and Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, but there are oh so many more to choose from! Instructional Designers often specialize in some medium of delivery (live, e-learning, or both)

The Dick and Carey Model

Role of the Dick and Carey Model in the Broader Curriculum Development Process

Typically, Curriculum Developers and Instructional Designers work closely together. They often have overlapping areas of expertise. So, while each entity has its own areas of specialty, they truly rely on each other to build an end instructional product that helps an organization most effectively and efficiently produce learning outcomes.

Sources:

https://ascendtraining.wordpress.com/2013/07/23/curriculum-development-and-instructional-design/

http://www.hastudio.us/5_CV/thesystematicdesignofinstruction.pdf

Writing to the Reader

How does one know if they are writing at a level in which their audience can understand? What is the ideal level writers should strive to "write to?" How can you increase the likelihood that coworkers and clients will read what you write?

50% of U.S. adults read below an eighth-grade level.

Most high school graduates read below 12th grade level.

Knowing these facts helps writers more effectively communicate with their audience. Just because a reader CAN read at a higher level doesn't always mean they should. As business consultant, Perry Marshall states:

"Don’t make people think. Except when you really want them to think."

Writers shouldn't make readers waste time dissecting sentences or wondering what an author's word-selection means. Brain power should be used to focus on the message. 

So, how do you figure out what level your writing is on?

Many word processing applications offer two tools which can be used to gauge appropriate reading level of materials. These tools can also be found online. These readability tools are called the Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level indicators. Both values indicate the text's readability, or how easy it is for someone to read it. Both values are based on the average number of syllables per word/average number of words per sentence. 

The average Flesch Reading Ease value indicates how easy it is for a reader to understand the text. The value ranges between 60 and 70 on a 100-point scale. The higher the score, the easier it is for readers to understand documents.

The Flesh-Kincaid Grade Level's score indicates a grade level. If text receives a value of 7.5, this indicates the text is written at a level at which a 7th grader in his or her fifth month of school can comprehend. The average range is between 7.0 and 8.0. Some examples of text run through this calculation using Microsoft Word's calculator are shown below:

  

So, the next time you write content, consider your audience. A student's grade level, high school diploma, or college degree do not always indicate a student's true reading level. The purpose of text is to convey a message. The more informed one is about the true reading level of their audience, the more effective they can be in crafting that message in a way in which their audience can most effectively comprehend.

And because I know inquiring minds want to know, this blog falls right within the range of "average."

Set Office 2016 to include readability values

Sources:

https://contently.com/strategist/2015/01/28/this-surprising-reading-level-analysis-will-change-the-way-you-write/

http://literacyprojectfoundation.org/community/statistics/

http://www.clearlanguagegroup.com/readability/

http://www.officetooltips.com/word/tips/viewing_document_and_readability_statistics.html

https://www.perrymarshall.com/16572/reading-level/

https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/04/04/isps-can-now-collect-and-sell-your-data-what-know-internet-privacy/100015356/