Project Management Job Aids

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Media – Is it a Noun or a Verb? Adding to the Clark-Kozma Confusion

Media – Noun or a Verb?

Adding to the Clark-Kozma Confusion

Amy D. Lawler

Texas Tech University

Abstract

Since the early 80s, there has been an ongoing, frequently-referenced debate among experts in the field of instructional technology. Do the types of media alone have an influence on learning outcomes? While the study media have on the influence of learning is not a new study, the debate itself came into focus when Richard E. Clark published Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media in 1983. The debate was further extended when Robert B. Kozma challenged Clark’s position in Learning with Media in 1991. The debate continued on through additionally published pieces by Clark in 1994 and later (Clark, 1994; Clark, 2012). Today, many members of the instructional technology field are still left wondering whether media, independently, do or do not influence learning. The purpose of this paper is to summarize both Clark and Kozma’s positions on this question, to discuss the distinction between media and method and why it’s important to the field of instructional design, and finally, to state my position on whether or not media do, in fact, affect learning.

Media – Is it a Noun or a Verb? Adding to the Clark-Kozma Confusion

Media Comparison Studies became popular in the 1960s (Clark, 1983, p. 447-448). Opinions of their validity seem to vary widely among experts in the field. In 1983, Richard Clark affirmed that it was time to put an end to these studies because he felt the results of these studies were confounding (Clark, 1983, p. 447). In 1991, Robert Kozma challenged Clark’s request to halt all media studies because his research clashed with Clark’s findings. To explain the differences in both Clark and Kozma’s research, this paper will summarize the points of each.

Richard E. Clark

Clark argued that, “…media do not influence learning under any conditions” (Clark, 1983, p. 445). He argued that it’s not the media but the change in curriculum that influences learning. He also stated any short-term gains from the use of new media were due to novelty effect (Clark, 1983, p. 448). Novelty effect is the increased effort or persistence that accounts for any observed achievement gains. People still argue this concept carries over to media today (Klosowski, 2014). Clark compared media to instructional delivery vehicles (Clark, 1983, p. 445). He argued that instructional delivery vehicles (media) don’t influence learning outcomes any more than grocery delivery vehicles influence nutrition. He stated only the content of the vehicle (instruction or groceries, respectively) affects the outcome. Clark recommended that researchers refrain from any additional studies that explore relationships between media and learning unless that research could produce a novel theory on the topic (Clark, 1983, p. 457).

Robert B. Kozma

Robert Kozma published an article in 1991 refuting Clark’s research. He stated that capabilities of specific media, along with appropriate methods for using those media, had an impact on the ways learners processed information and also that these differences in processing accounted for varied learning when one medium was used instead of another (Kozma, 1991, p. 179). Kozma conducted several studies using books, television and computers to cite examples of how the media impacted learning outcomes. He stated books have a stability that benefits both low and high readers. The books allowed both types of learners to gain access to information. These methods varied from repeating readings when clarity was needed to skipping information when the learner felt the necessary information had been ascertained (Kozma, 1991, p. 184).” Kozma also observed different media effects when learners were exposed to television. For example, students remained more attentive to television when female voiceovers were used. The belief for this was that children assumed female voices were child-oriented and male voiceovers typically corresponded to adult-oriented content (Kozma, 1991, p. 190). My favorite example was Kozma’s direct correlation between student performance on assessments over bar graphs before and after an experiment involving students inputting temperature into a computer and then seeing the immediate output of that data in the form of a bar graph (Kozma, 1991, p. 196). The computer medium had a direct impact on the students by connecting the data in the bar graph to an experience they could relate to. The students were then able to connect their prior knowledge about temperatures and see the relationship of those temperatures on a graph, thus increasing their understanding of how to better read the data contained in a bar graph.

Distinguishing Media from Methods

In order to adequately distinguish media from instructional methods, we must first understand how media are used in the context of today’s self-study and formalized classrooms. Unlike instruction prior to the 2000s, media can now be used as an independent method of instruction. Think about how often students, our own children, or coworkers, have used different media to obtain information from YouTube, review resources online, or look up a diagram on a Google app. These types of inquiries don’t require an instructional method. They are mostly self-taught. However, the media have a profound impact on the outcome of what the learner was able to acquire from them. In this use, I agree that media can be compared to Clark’s vehicle analogy because the media are, in fact, the instructional delivery vehicles. However, unlike Clark, I do believe media do impact learning.
While media can be used as self-study aids, they are now also an integrative tool for instruction. When conducting more formalized instruction, methods of integrating various new media come into play. Unlike the pre-1970s classrooms, media are no longer something the instructor turns on at the beginning of class and turns off when class time has expired. Media still take more of a role of a noun but are integrated with a verb, the instructional method. In these situations, the methods of teaching (verb) integrate the media (noun) to produce the intended outcome of influencing learning. In this example, Clark’s delivery model doesn’t apply. In this case, the instructional method is the delivery truck, the media are the truck’s enhancing turbochargers ("Top 3 Tips to Make Your Diesel Truck Faster," n.d.), and the learning outcomes are the deliverables. Due to the variables of learners and learner needs, knowing the difference between when media should be a noun or a verb is important in building the most effective instructional design.

Conclusion

Especially with the advancement of the internet, media can and do have a significant influence on learning. This does not negate the belief that quality instructional methods should be viewed as less important. As methods and students evolve, so too does our need for evolving direct instruction. However, as long as humans are social creatures, the need for quality instructors delivering superlative instructional methods will remain.

References

Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445-459. doi:10.2307/1170217

Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-29. doi:10.1007/bf02299088

Clark, R. E. (2012). What is next in the media and methods debate? In Learning from media: Arguments, analysis, and evidence (2nd ed., pp. 327-337). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Pub.

Klosowski, T. (2014, July 6). The Novelty Effect Explains Why a New App Makes You More Productive. Retrieved from http://lifehacker.com/the-novelty-effect-explains-why-a-new-app-makes-you-mor-1587158104

Kozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with Media. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179-212. doi:10.2307/1170534

Top 3 Tips to Make Your Diesel Truck Faster. (n.d.). Retrieved October 8, 2016, from http://www.autotraining.edu/blog/top-3-tips-to-make-your-diesel-truck-faster/

Teaching and Learning: Taking It Personally Matters

Teaching and Learning:
Taking It Personally Matters

Amy D. Lawler

Texas Tech University

Abstract

One’s teaching style is as individual as the students they teach. How does an instructor know learning has actually occurred? What’s the best method for teaching material to students? Is there a best approach to designing environments that promote maximum learning outcomes? When considering my personal approach to teaching and my philosophy on learning, these questions and several more come to mind. The purpose of this paper is to articulate my learning philosophy, defining what I think it means to learn; define my personal statement of teaching; and explain how I think we, as instructors, can teach effectively and design environments for learning that promote the best outcomes for our students’ ability to learn. In a world where we are constantly reminded, “Don’t take it personally. It’s not personal, it’s business,” we must intentionally give ourselves permission to implement and personalize different practices and philosophies to meet the learning needs of our students because for our students, it is personal.  

Teaching and Learning: Taking it Personally Matters

Just like the instructional technology field itself, there have been numerous learning principles adopted (and adapted) over time. These many philosophies and theories provide educators options that can initially overwhelm novices of the ever-changing field of instructional technology. However, understanding the research behind these theories is important for new instructional designers entering the field so they can continue developing the field. In essence, putting theories, or “tools,” into practice helps instructional designers decide which tools they want to hold in their instructional toolbox.

Learning Philosophy

“If you can’t explain it simply, then you don’t understand it well enough,” is a popular, misattributed quote of Albert Einstein derived from when Einstein spoke about the explanation of physical theories. The actual quote said that all physical theories, their mathematical expressions apart, ought to lend themselves to “so simple a description that even a child could understand them.” ("Albert Einstein - Wikiquote," n.d.) Ertmer and Newby state that learning consists of an ongoing change in behavior or the capacity to behave in a given fashion. (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 45) However, I believe learning has an additional component that is critically important for transfer and long-term memory of the concept. That component is what Einstein implied in his response on the explanation of physical theories. Constructivism states the learner is able to identify the context for which the information is valid and then apply that information in the appropriate setting, (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 58) but I believe authentic mastery occurs when the learner is able to articulate a simplified explanation of the concept so that “a child could understand.” In doing this, problem-based learning (PBL) is practiced and supported through cognitive scaffolds such as questioning, modeling, and argumentation which greatly facilitates long-term transfer (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, pp. 69-70) Constructivism claims that a learner interprets reality based on his or her apperceptions. (Jonassen, 1991, p. 10) The principle of constructivism is further modeled with the use of these scaffolds, helping the learner build their own contextual meaning of the concept in which they are explaining.

Personal Statement of Teaching

“Love is the essence of teaching” (S. Sitton, personal communication, 1999-2001) is a statement one of my undergraduate instructors always used when describing her teaching philosophy. My personal teaching style models this through acceptance, safety and specificity. Providing these three things to my students at the onset of instruction creates an environment that fosters the best possibility for my students to create conceptual meanings for themselves. So, my personal statement is, “Love is the essence of teaching and meaning is the essence of learning.” My classroom is one where high standards are the “standard” and respect is expected from all parties, even me. My first year students attended a Title I school with 98% of the student population on free or reduced lunches. Many of my students were victims of learned helplessness, coming from dysfunctional homes in which they had little to no control over how to improve the situations that occurred in those homes. (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, pp. 88) One of my challenges as their teacher was to provide them with as many tools and as much inspiration as I could in the eight hours I had with them each day in hopes they would find a way to better their potential outcomes. I keep contact with some of these students today. One is in nursing school and several work in the community. While my teaching style wasn’t the only factor in the futures these students are now experiencing, I do believe the expectations I set in my classroom for these students has impacted their lives in a positive manner, at least for the time they were in my class.

Effectively Teaching and Designing Environments for Learning

Effective teaching requires teachers to be informed about instructional theories, student motivation and volition, students’ academic levels, learning objectives, and boundaries in their institutions regarding designing teaching environments. As stated in our text, the field of instructional design fills the role of linking application of researched instructional design theories to appropriate instructional design strategies. (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 43-44) This bridge assists in building learning environments that help teachers be effective in the classroom. Environmental design can assist in ensuring cognitive load is appropriately balanced by stair-stepping students through concept difficulty. Jonassen states that learners have three levels of knowledge: introductory, advanced, and expert. He also states that constructivism is best used in the advanced level while behaviorism is best used in the introductory level. (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 57) When environments are designed effectively, student motivation can be maintained and volition reduced by avoiding the ego-depletion effect. Volition can only be practiced for a limited amount of time, so minimizing distractions, even instructional distractions, can keep students motivated towards learning the content. (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, pp. 86) If teachers use appropriate instructional strategies that have been researched to work most effectively in specific instructional levels, cognitive load is reduced which helps maintain manageable volition, thus increasing the probability that the student will be maximally engaged to process the instruction he or she receives. To conclude, designing appropriate environments for learning requires the designer to have knowledge of the theories and principles that have been researched, know when and how to apply the appropriate strategies from those theories and principles, and follow-up to evaluate the effectiveness of those designs so that modifications can be made to improve learner outcomes.

References

Albert Einstein - Wikiquote. (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2016, from https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#Misattributed

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71. doi:10.1002/piq.21143

Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? ETR&D, 39(3), 5-14. doi:10.1007/bf02296434

Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2012). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Zone of Proximal Development

Cognitive Scaffolding means developing a learning experience that supports all learners regardless of prior knowledge, thinking and learning skills, and styles of learning. Based off Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development.

Cognitive scaffolding is designed to fill the gap between what a learner is able to accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with assistance to help them work on their own without the need of someone else.

Using the right amount of scaffolding to support learners in their zone of proximal development is key. Too much support dampens students’ efforts while too little could result in students’ inability to perform or ascertain mastery of certain instructional activities which could, in turn, decrease motivation.

Cognitive Load & Information Processing Theory

Cone of Experience - Edgar Dale

Cone of Experience

Edgar Dale introduced this method of categorizing media's ability to communicate information in 1946. It basically states that learners must have sufficient real-life, concrete experiences to build upon for them to grasp more complex, less realistic and abstract concepts as they mature. For example, if children were to look at pictures of flowers and know what they were, they must have first seen, smelled and touched real flowers. 

Source: Wikipedia

In terms of distance education, it is possible to bring the sight and sound of an object, but it is not possible to bring the smell. It is important for new information to be presented as realistically as possible. (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 81) This does not mean that "realistic" is better. In fact, realistic instruction has the potential to introduce "noise" that actually detracts the learner from possibly grasping a skill. It is important for instructional designer to consider the advantages and disadvantages of offering realistic instruction vs more abstract instruction. Failing to identify the best approach can be costly and jeopardize the overall goal of grasping a skill or concept. Sometimes the best approach is somewhere in the middle of the spectrum between concrete and abstract.

Source: Simonson, M. R., Smaldino, S. E., & Zvacek, S. (2015). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (6th ed.).

Distance Education Theories

Distance Education Theories

Distance education is defined to have four components:

• institution-based (not self-study)
• separation, either geographically or by time, between the instructor and students
• learning unit is connected by telecommunications
• consists of a learning group or community that shares ideas

Simonson's Emerging Theory of Distance Education
Distance education is equivalent to traditional education. While not identical, learning outcomes are equivalent if distance education courses are properly designed. The basis for Simonson’s equivalency theory is that learning experiences should be equivalent, rather than identical regardless of whether the learner is in a traditional or distant setting. For example, a triangle and square may be equivalent in area, but they are different shapes.

  
The field of distance education is still emerging and this is evident in the numerous theories that have been presented in this area. Keegan classified theories of distance education into three groups: 

• Theories of independence and autonomy
• Theories of industrialization of teaching
• Theories of interaction and communication

Theories of Independence and Autonomy

American Theory of Independent Study

Wedemeyer, a professor from the University of Wisconsin, considered the independence of the student as the essence of distance education (Keegan 1986). This was reflected in Wedemeyer's preference for the term "independent study" for distance education at the college or university level. He was critical of contemporary patterns of higher education, believing that outdated concepts of learning and teaching were being employed. Wedemeyer felt that these concepts failed to utilize modern technologies in ways that could alter an institution. He set forth a system of distance education that includes ten characteristics which emphasize learner independence and the adoption of technology as a way of implementing it. According to Wedemeyer, the system should:

1. Be capable of operating any place where there are students---even only one student------whether or not there are teachers at the same place, at the same time;
2. Place greater responsibility for learning on the student;
3. Free faculty members from custodial-type duties so that more time can be given to truly educational tasks;
4. Offer students and adults wider choices (more opportunities) in courses, formats, and methodologies;
5. Use, as appropriate, all the teaching media and methods proven effective;
6. Mix and combine media and methods so that each subject or unit within a subject is taught in the best way known;
7. Cause the redesign and development of courses to fit into an articulated media program;
8. Preserve and enhance opportunities for adaptation to individual differences;
9. Evaluate student achievement simply, not by raising barriers regarding the place, rate, method, or sequence of student study; and
10. Permit students to start, stop, and learn at their own pace.

Theories of Industrialization of Teaching

After examining a research base that included an extensive analysis of the European distance teaching organizations of the 1960s, Peters (1988) proposed that distance education could be analyzed by comparison with the industrial production of goods. Peters stated that from many points of view, conventional, oral, group-based education was a pre-industrial form of education, implying that distance teaching could not have existed before the industrial era. Based on economic and industrial theory, Peters proposed the following new categories (terminology) for the analysis of distance education:

1. Rationalization: the use of methodical measures to reduce the required amount of input of power, time, and money.
2. Division of labor: the division of a task into simpler components or subtasks.
3. Mechanization: the use of machines in a work process. Peters noted that distance education would be impossible without machines.
4. Assembly line: a method of work in which workers remain station ary while objects they are working on move past them. In traditional distance education programs, materials for both teacher and student are not the product of one individual.
5. Mass production: the production of goods in large quantities. Because demand outstrips supply at colleges and universities, there has been a trend toward large-scale operations.
6. Preparatory work: determining how workers, machines, and materials can usefully relate to each other during each phase of the production process. The success of distance education depends on a preparatory phase.
7. Planning: the system of decisions that determines an operation prior to its being carried out.
8. Organization: creating general or permanent arrangements for purpose-oriented activity. Organization makes it possible for students to receive predetermined instructional units at appointed times.
9. Scientific control methods: methods by which work processes are analyzed systematically, particularly by time studies, and in accordance with the results obtained from measurements and empirical data.
10. Formalization: the predetermination of the phases of the manufacturing process. In distance education, all the points in the cycle must be determined exactly.
11. Standardization: the limitations of manufacture to a restricted number of types of one product to make these more suitable for their purpose, cheaper to produce, and easier to replace.
12. Change of function: the change of the role or job of the worker in the production process. The original role of knowledge provider as lecturer is divided into those of study unit author and marker.
13. Objectification: the loss, in the production process, of the subjective element that had previously determined work to a considerable degree. In distance education most teaching functions are objectified.
14. Concentration and centralization: because of the large amount of capital required for mass production and the division of labor, there has been a movement toward large industrial concerns with a concentration of capital, a centralized administration, and a market that is monopolized.

Theories of Interaction and Communication

Holmberg’s theory of interaction and communication states that the effectiveness of distance education directly relates to the emotional connectedness the learner has to the instructor and learning unit. This consequently increases student pleasure and motivation. While Holmberg admits this is a “leaky theory,” I agree with it because I have personally experienced it. When students’ emotional needs are met through effective interaction with the instructor, other students and rapport is built, students feel safer to take risks which increases the likelihood of experiential learning instances.

YEAR	RESEARCHER	THEORY	SHORT EXPLANATION
1960s	Otto Peters (Germany)	Theory of Industrialization of Teaching	Distance education can be analyzed by comparing it with industrial production of goods. Proposed a bunch of new terms to use when analyzing distance ed that all relate to industrialization.Basically, we can apply industrial thinking to distance ed, like division of labor as important or that the effectiveness of learning depends of planning and organizing.
1970s	Michael Moore	Theory of Independent Study/Transactional distance	Distance ed = “independent study”His theory is a classification method for distance education programs by examining the amount of learner autonomy and the distance between teacher and learner. Distance ed is about dialog (communication) and structure (how does program respond to needs of learner?).
1985	Börje Holmberg	Theory of Interaction and Communication	Distance ed = “Guided Didactic Conversation”Basically, if learners feel a part of a learning community/dialogue and emotionally involved they are more motivated to learn
1990?	Malcolm Knowles	Andragogy(which means the method and practice of teaching adult learners)	the attainment of adulthood is connected to how adults perceive themselves as self- directing individualsA theory all about what adults need to be successful in distance ed like mutual respect, safe spaces, minimal criticism, lots of support, specific guidelines.. (seems like what all learners need….)
1996	Desmond Keegan	Actually framework for creating theories of distance ed	Answer three ?’s before developing a theory of distance ed:1. Is dist ed an educational activity?2. Is dist ed a form a conventional ed?3. Is dist ed possible?Teaching acts time/place separate from learning act time/place: to be successful, two acts must be reintegratedsuggests 5 changes to normal structure to do so (industrialization, privatization, administrative, building, cost), and three hypotheses from his framework:1. dis ted students drop out of programs that don’t do the above2. dis ted students don’t achieve good learning when the above does not happen3. status of dist ed will be questioned when above are not met
??	Hilary Perraton	(Synthesizing existing theories)	14 hypotheses/statements from existing theories of ed and communicationFirst 5 about how distance ed can maximize learning (cheaper, more accessible, can teach anything)4 about needing to increase dialog (dialog helps facilitate)5 about method (multimedia more effective than single, systems approach helpful, feedback necessary, do more than read/watch/listen, ENGAGE)
2015	Simonson	Theory of Equivalency	The experiences of the local learner and the distant learner should have equivalent value even though these experiences might be quite different

Sources: http://www.c3l.uni-oldenburg.de/cde/found/simons99.html

Simonson, M. R., Smaldino, S. E., & Zvacek, S. (2015). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (6th ed.).
M Acosta (classmate in EDIT 5370; Summer 2018)

Levels of Evaluation

The Kirkpatrick model of evaluation is a 4-tier model for evaluating effectiveness of an instructional design program. Its creator, Donald L. Kirkpatrick, PhD, introduced the model in the 1950s. While some are skeptical of its effectiveness, it still remains the most widely used model in the world due to its simplicity.

http://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/Our-Philosophy/The-Kirkpatrick-Model

Level 1 - Reaction

This level measures customer satisfaction, engagement, and relevance. While a positive reaction doesn't ensure that learning occurred, often, a negative reaction almost always reduces the possibility that it did. In other words, how learners react to training is an important part of whether or not they are able to learn.

Types of questions one might ask to measure effectiveness of this level:

• How did participants react to the training program?
• Did it engage them?
• Did they feel the training applied to their jobs?
• Were the materials relevant?

Level 2 - Learning

This level measures learning. Specifically, it measures how well students have evolved in skills, knowledge, or attitude. Pre and post tests help evaluate learning at this level, but they are not always seen as useful in a work-type setting. Various other summative evaluations may be used. While a positive reaction doesn't ensure that learning occurred, often, a negative reaction almost always reduces the possibility that it did. In other words, how learners react to training is an important part of whether or not they are able to learn. Levels 1 and 2 are the most often evaluated levels. Many organizations do not ever reach level 3 of evaluation. If level 3 is evaluated, it is imperative that proper analysis of levels 1 and 2 have first occurred.

Level 3 - Behavior

This level measures the transfer that has occurred in a learner's behavior due to the training program. For many, this measures the true effectiveness of a learning program. Some argue that this level is difficult to assess due to a variety of factors beyond the instructional designers role. However, the purpose of learning is to impact on-the-job performance, so analysis of this level is important in knowing what changes need to be made to the instructional program in order to facilitate maximum return on investment (ROI). Some factors which impact level 3 results include managerial support of the client, organization processes which may affect a client's ability to transfer learning, and lack of follow-up by training organization after the training has concluded.

Types of questions/actions one might ask to measure effectiveness of this level:

• Are the new skills, knowledge, or attitudes being used in the learner's everyday environment?
• Are you (or the trainee) using what you (they) learned? Why or why not?
• If you needed to _____ (insert taught skill based off learning objective), how would do this?
• If you aren't ______ (using new skill based off learning objective), what would you need to begin doing so?
• At the conclusion of training, have students write a letter/(or, if virtual, an email) to themselves reflecting on what they learned and how they will apply the learning in the field. Mail the letter/follow up on the email to them months after training and contact them to get input on how they think they are doing applying the skills they set out to apply. The idea is that improving a learner's self-efficacy (belief that they can apply the learned skills), will in fact, increase the likelihood that the learner will apply the newly learned skills. This exercise allows for the learner to authentically evaluate self-efficacy at the end of training while also providing a means to follow up on that evaluation.

Level 4 - Results

This level measures the impact of training. This may include increased productivity, reduced cost, increased sales, higher profits, etc.

Types of questions/actions one might ask to measure effectiveness of this level:

• Have support calls on training topics reduced?
• Is there increased customer satisfaction?
• Is waste reduced?
• Has morale improved?

Sources:

http://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/Our-Philosophy/The-Kirkpatrick-Model
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/kirkpatrick.htm
https://maketrainingstick.wordpress.com/
https://maketrainingstick.wordpress.com/2014/06/30/letter-to-self-easy-closing-activity-that-makes-training-stick/
http://maketrainingstick.com/pdfs/written-self-guidance.pdf

Bates, R. A. (2004). A critical analysis of evaluation practice: the Kirkpatrick model and the principle of beneficence. Evaluation and Program Planning, 27(3), 341-347. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2004.04.011

Curriculum Developer vs. Instructional Designer - What's the Difference?

Potato, potawto, tomato, tamatoh...right? 

Curriculum development and instructional design - those are the same things, right? Well, not necessarily. In my quest to clarify some terms in this relatively young field of Instructional Technology, I have found myself thinking a lot about the differences in these two terms. What am I?

I work as a Curriculum Developer for a large software company. Like most people, I have a job description that outlines my duties. And probably like most people, I would say that I do so much more than what is technically listed in that outline. So, I got to thinking...am I a Curriculum Developer, Instructional Designer, Trainer? WHAT AM I?!? Are these even the same things? So, off to research (Ok, ok, surf the internet) I went!

Here's what I discovered.

Curriculum Developers are professional experts in all things learning. They know a lot about learning theory, learning methods, educational best practices as well as the wide spectrum of learning content delivery media (classroom-based, online, synchronous, asynchronous, webinars, e-learning etc.) Curriculum Developers are adept at looking at the big picture, or blueprint, of an organization's learning needs and then mapping out the best path to achieving those needs. 

The ability to identify which content is necessary in reaching an organization's goal is key. The Curriculum Developer's knowledge of learning theories supports their ability to properly sequence relevant foundational concepts  and essential building blocks which are necessary for mastery of the identified content. Some Curriculum Developers also serve as subject matter experts (SMEs) and have some overlapping expertise in Instructional Design.

Instructional Designers are professional experts in the development of actual courses (pieces of the big picture). The development of courses includes content flow, typically designed using a preferred instructional design model, and specific learning activities that will be used to most efficiently achieve the learning goals of the organization If the organization has a Curriculum Developer, this is typically the content outlined in the Curriculum Developer's blueprint. When developing the actual courses, Instructional Designers are experts in understanding which instructional design model best meets the needs of their organization. Common instructional design models include: ADDIE, The Dick and Carey Model, ASSURE, and Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, but there are oh so many more to choose from! Instructional Designers often specialize in some medium of delivery (live, e-learning, or both)

The Dick and Carey Model

Role of the Dick and Carey Model in the Broader Curriculum Development Process

Typically, Curriculum Developers and Instructional Designers work closely together. They often have overlapping areas of expertise. So, while each entity has its own areas of specialty, they truly rely on each other to build an end instructional product that helps an organization most effectively and efficiently produce learning outcomes.

Sources:

https://ascendtraining.wordpress.com/2013/07/23/curriculum-development-and-instructional-design/

http://www.hastudio.us/5_CV/thesystematicdesignofinstruction.pdf

Writing to the Reader

How does one know if they are writing at a level in which their audience can understand? What is the ideal level writers should strive to "write to?" How can you increase the likelihood that coworkers and clients will read what you write?

50% of U.S. adults read below an eighth-grade level.

Most high school graduates read below 12th grade level.

Knowing these facts helps writers more effectively communicate with their audience. Just because a reader CAN read at a higher level doesn't always mean they should. As business consultant, Perry Marshall states:

"Don’t make people think. Except when you really want them to think."

Writers shouldn't make readers waste time dissecting sentences or wondering what an author's word-selection means. Brain power should be used to focus on the message. 

So, how do you figure out what level your writing is on?

Many word processing applications offer two tools which can be used to gauge appropriate reading level of materials. These tools can also be found online. These readability tools are called the Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level indicators. Both values indicate the text's readability, or how easy it is for someone to read it. Both values are based on the average number of syllables per word/average number of words per sentence. 

The average Flesch Reading Ease value indicates how easy it is for a reader to understand the text. The value ranges between 60 and 70 on a 100-point scale. The higher the score, the easier it is for readers to understand documents.

The Flesh-Kincaid Grade Level's score indicates a grade level. If text receives a value of 7.5, this indicates the text is written at a level at which a 7th grader in his or her fifth month of school can comprehend. The average range is between 7.0 and 8.0. Some examples of text run through this calculation using Microsoft Word's calculator are shown below:

  

So, the next time you write content, consider your audience. A student's grade level, high school diploma, or college degree do not always indicate a student's true reading level. The purpose of text is to convey a message. The more informed one is about the true reading level of their audience, the more effective they can be in crafting that message in a way in which their audience can most effectively comprehend.

And because I know inquiring minds want to know, this blog falls right within the range of "average."

Set Office 2016 to include readability values

Sources:

https://contently.com/strategist/2015/01/28/this-surprising-reading-level-analysis-will-change-the-way-you-write/

http://literacyprojectfoundation.org/community/statistics/

http://www.clearlanguagegroup.com/readability/

http://www.officetooltips.com/word/tips/viewing_document_and_readability_statistics.html

https://www.perrymarshall.com/16572/reading-level/

https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/04/04/isps-can-now-collect-and-sell-your-data-what-know-internet-privacy/100015356/